The findings from the t-test analysis show there is no significant difference in plans with or without mandates. Results also suggest the need for FEMA to further scrutinize and review the approval process criteria to reflect the inclusion of these identified elements before plans are approved. Such scrutiny could lead to improved plans and subsequently lead to a reduction of impacts of hazards.

56 concepts, approaches and practices have been identified and evaluated.42 items received a 80% or higher consensus in the first round. In the second round 3 items (of the remaining 14) were included in the second round.The items were divided in 11 categories. The four major categories that included the highest number of items were collaboration, planning, procedures and training.

The assistive search technologies all contributed to more effective search. The synergy with canine search proved to give more accurate results with respect to certainty of presence, location accuracy, and situation awareness. The assistive IT-system enabling digital communication of messages proved to be a valuable tool. It not only enhanced the message volume and detail sent by on-site rescuers improving the collective situational awareness, but also enabled the decision-makers in the Emergency Operation Center to focus on other tasks such as surveillance by disburdening them from the logging task.

The contribution of the work reported in this paper lies in the design research on a new collaborative system for teams doing complex geo-spatial planning tasks. Our design of a multi-view, role-based system has the potential to improve and extend collaborative tasks in emergency management.

This paper has argued for the community-oriented nature of emergency management planning work. It has described how multiple local agencies come together to prepare for and respond to emergencies.This focus on local agencies and citizen involvement, along with the fact that every emergency occurs in some locale, emphasizes our interest in community emergency management planning.The software architecture described in this paper offers both a design and a toolkit for implementing geocollaboration applications. The architecture allows for the design and development of a variety of geocollaboration software tools. This is particularly well suited for emergency management planning, which has different geocollaboration needs depending on the context. The software architecture allows us, as the researchers, to explore different geocollaboration interactions and features within a specific use context. It also allows the development of unique applications for multiple contexts.The software architecture, and the corresponding tool development, is also beneficial to community emergency management planning. Through the design and development of collaborative tools for emergency planning work practices, a collaborative, virtual environment for emergency management planning can form.Our geocollaborative architecture can also support the unique roles people play in emergency management and allow tools to be tailored to those specific purposes.

Multiple GuidelinesDesign guidelines for synthesis support toolsSynthesis strategiesOur research provides an initial examination of part of the geovisualization research process that has until now had little attention. The results of our experiments show that synthesis conducted in the individual realm is an intricate and varied activity.

In the case of big events, task force units must be located nearby the event area to ensure safety and help. In this paper, first it was revealed how the number of required task force units is usually determined in Germany. It is realized that very rough estimates are used. Where to locate these task force units best is mainly done by experience of the decision maker. Herewith it was developed mathematical models to give a better decision support in such situations. Basically, three problems were discussed: (1) How many task force units are needed and where to locate them, (2) given a limited number of task force units, where should they be located to cover the event area best to ensure help in a predefined response time, and (3) given a limited number of task force units, where should they be located to cover the event area with a shortest possible response time until help. In addition we discussed the problem of relocating task force units. Although, besides the relocation problem, all these problems are theoretically hard to optimize, computational studies revealed that instances of practical relevance can be solved optimally in short time using standard software. Eventually, we have shown that our approach provides decision support for a real-world case from the city of Dresden where 50000 people gathered together.

It was concluded that instruction on crisis management with a high-fidelity simulator, using either video or hands-on instruction, can result in a significant improvement in performance.

When the cognitive work in a team is focused on continuous sharing of as much data as possible, this can trap decision makers in a reactive behaviour during escalation Applying the theoretical base of joint cognitive activity is a promising way to establish a contrasting view of what makes teams establish, maintain and regain control in escalating situations.

“It may be necessary in such cases to explicitly verbalize the evaluation process so that other team members can provide input. By consulting with the team, the leader would be engaging in resource utilization.”Clearer role identification was needed.